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Battle of Khanwa

Coordinates: 27°2′7″N 77°32′35″E / 27.03528°N 77.54306°E / 27.03528; 77.54306
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Battle of Khanwa

Mughal painting depicting the Rajput Army (left) battling the Mughal Army (right)
Date16 March 1527
Location
Khanwa, Rajasthan (near Fatehpur Sikri)
27°2′7″N 77°32′35″E / 27.03528°N 77.54306°E / 27.03528; 77.54306
Result Mughal victory[1]
Territorial
changes		 Mughal imperial power established in North India by Babur and Agra became centre of their power.
Belligerents
Mughal Empire

Kingdom of Mewar

Vassal states:

Commanders and leaders
Babur
Humayun
Bairam Khan
Ustad Ali Quli
Mustafa Rumi
Chin Timur Khan
Mir Khalifa
Mir Abdul Aziz
Mir Muhammed Ali Khan
Khusrau Shah Kokultash
Kasim Husein Khan
Zaman Mirza
Askari Mirza
Hindal Mirza
Sayyid Mahdi Khawaja
Asad Malik Hast
 Rana Sanga  (WIA)
Prithviraj Kachwaha
Maldev Rathore
Kalyanmal rathod
Uday Singh of Vagad †
Bharmal Rathod
Medini Rai
Hasan Khan Mewati †
Ratan Singh of Merta †
Manik Chand Chauhan †
Chandrabhan Chauhan †
Ratan Singh Chundawat †
Kam Dev Singh Sikarwar †
Raj Rana Ajja Jhala of Bari Sadri  †
Haridas Kesaria †
Rao Ramdas
Gokaldas Parmar †
Rajrana sajja jhala of delwara †
Silhadi (Joined Mughal Army in the middle of battle) (AWOL)
Strength

Total: 80,000 (possibly) [2]

  • 20,000 cavalry[3]
  • Unknown number of foot musketeers, Swivel guns, mortars[4]
  • Unknown number of Indian allies[5]

Total: 110,000+[6]

  • 55,000+ infantry
  • 45,000 cavalry
  • 10,000 infantry or cavalrymen of Delhi Sultanate under Mahmud Lodi
Casualties and losses
Heavy[7] Heavy[7]
Battle of Khanwa is located in South Asia
Battle of Khanwa
Battle of Khanwa
class=notpageimage|
Location within South Asia
Battle of Khanwa is located in Rajasthan
Battle of Khanwa
Battle of Khanwa
Battle of Khanwa (Rajasthan)

The Battle of Khanwa was fought at Khanwa on 16 March 1527. It was fought between the invading Timurid forces of Babur and the Kingdom of Mewar led by Rana Sanga for supremacy of Northern India.[8] The battle was a major event in Medieval Indian history although Timurids won at Panipat but at the time, the sultanate at Delhi was a spent force that was long crumbling. To the contrary, Kingdom of Mewar under the able rule of Rana Sanga and his predecessors, had turned into one of the strongest powers of northern India.[9] The battle was among the most decisive battles in the Mughal conquest of northern India.[10][11][12] It was among the earliest battles in Northern India where gunpowder was used to a great extent. The battle resulted in heavy casualties for both Timurids and Rajputs.[13]

Background

Until 1524, Babur's aim was to expand his rule to Punjab, primarily to fulfil the legacy of his ancestor Timur, since it used to be part of his empire.[14] Large parts of north India were under the rule of Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty, but the empire was crumbling and there were many defectors. Babur had already raided Punjab in 1504 and 1518. In 1519 he tried to invade Punjab but had to return to Kabul due to complications there.[15] In 1520–21 Babur again ventured to conquer Punjab, he easily captured Bhira and Sialkot which were known as the "twin gateways to Hindustan". Babur was able to annex towns and cities till Lahore but was again forced to stop due to rebellions in Qandhar.[16] In 1523 he received invitations from Alam Khan Lodi, brother of Sikandar Lodi, Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab and Ala-ud-Din, Ibrahim's uncle, to invade the Delhi Sultanate. Alam personally went to Babur's court and told him about the political situation of India. Babur agreed after sending some of his nobles to scout Punjab. These nobles, after studying the area, approved the plan to invade India. However, there were arguments between the Mughals and the Lodi rebels. Alam demanded that Babur give Delhi to him after it was conquered, as he was instrumental in inviting the Mughals to invade the weakened Lodi Sultanate. Babur refused and thus Alam took his army to besiege Delhi by himself, where his army was defeated by Ibrahim Lodi.[17] Daulat Khan also betrayed Babur and with a force of 40,000 he captured Sialkot from the Mughal garrison and marched towards Lahore. Daulat Khan was soundly defeated at Lahore and through this victory Babur became the unopposed lord of Punjab.[18][15] Babur continued his conquest and annihilated the Lodi sultanate's army in the First Battle of Panipat, where he killed the Sultan and founded the Mughal Empire.[19]

According to Baburnama, Rana Sanga had also offered to help Babur against Ibrahim, however while Babur did attack Lodi and take over Delhi and Agra, Sanga made no move, apparently having changed his mind. Babur had resented this backsliding; in his autobiography, Babur accuses Rana Sanga of breaching their agreement. However Rajput sources claim the opposite and say that Sanga was successful against the Lodi Empire and did not require Baburs aid. Instead it was Babur who approached Rana Sanga and proposed an alliance against the Lodi Empire.[20] Historian Satish Chandra speculates that Sanga may have imagined a long, drawn-out struggle taking place between Babur and Lodi, following which he would be able to take control of the regions he coveted. Alternatively, writes Chandra, Sanga may have thought that in the event of a Mughal victory, Babur would withdraw from Delhi and Agra, like Timur, once he had seized the treasures of these cities. Once he realized that Babur intended to stay on in India, Sanga proceeded to build a grand coalition that would either force Babur out of India or confine him to Afghanistan. In early 1527, Babur started receiving reports of Sanga's advance towards Agra.[21]

According to Jadunath Sarkar, Babur did not need an invitation to invade Hindustan. After establishing himself in Kabul, Babur had started making inroads into Punjab which was governed by Daulat Khan Lodi, a courtier of Ibrahim Lodi. Daulat was unfaithful to his lord and formed an alliance with Babur against the Lodi Empire. This made it easy for Babur to enter Hindustan and oust both Daulat and Ibrahim.[22]

Indologist Gopinath Sharma who is well known for his scholarly work on Mewar Kings and Mughal Empire[23] ably rejected this theory of Rana Sanga sending his ambassador to Babur by providing various factual contemporary evidences for the same. Sharma added that Sanga already established himself as the most powerful Hindu king of Northern India of that time, while Babur was yet to establish his reputation in India. Under those circumstances it was in Babur's interest to seek an alliance with perhaps his greatest and most powerful enemy of Northern India. Also Babur gave no details of his alliance with Sanga while elsewhere he had provided details of his agreement with Daulat khan and Alam khan Lodhi. Baburnama itself was not a reliable book as it exaggerated many accounts like he did about number of armies in First Battle of Panipat to over glorify his victory which are too exaggerated in the context of modern researches. The most important aspect of all is that there are no contemporary Hindu or Muslim writer who mentioned Sanga sending an ambassador to Kabul while all of them do that for Lodhi's. Therefore, In Sharma's words It was a pity that all later writers have uncritically accepted Babur's version. [24]

Preparations

Main article: Battle of Bayana

After the First Battle of Panipat, Babur had recognized that his primary threat came from two allied quarters: Rana Sanga and the Afghans ruling eastern India at the time. In a council that Babur called, it was decided that the Afghans represented the bigger threat, and consequently Humayun was sent at the head of an army to fight the Afghans in the east. However, upon hearing of Rana Sanga's advancement on Agra, Humayun was hastily recalled.

Its difficult to assume the strength of Babur's army as neither the Rajput chronicles nor the Mughal ones talks about it. However, some medival text had put Babur's strength about 80,000 men.[25]

In order to oust Babur from Hindustan. Maharana Sangram Singh ordered the drums of war to be beaten and letter of call to duty were sended to all the Rajput vassals serving the Imperial seat of Chittorgarh which was dully responded.[26] Vassals from Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Sindh and Northern Gujarat as many as 120 joined him.[27] Primarily from Bundi, Kotah, Jalore, Sirohi, Dungarpur, Banswara, Ajmer, Gagraun, Idar, Shekhawati, Pali, Sojat, Merta, Marwar, Amber, Chanderi, Sarangpur and Bikaner.[28] Further, Mahmud Lodi, the younger son of Sikandar Lodi, whom the Afghans had proclaimed their new sultan also joined Sangram with a contingent of Afghan horsemen with him. Khanzada Hasan Khan Mewati, the ruler of Mewat, also joined the alliance with his men. Babur denounced the Afghans who joined the alliance against him as kafirs and murtads (those who had apostatized from Islam).Different historians have conflicting veiw about the alliance.[29][30]

According to historian Har Bilas Sarda, Maharana Sangram was having more than 1,10,000 soldiers under him out of which there was little over 55,000 infantry, 45,000 cavalry and 10,000 adventurers from Mahmud Lodi.[6]

Initial Skirmishes

Military detachments were then sent by Babur to conquer Dholpur, Gwalior, and Bayana. These areas also formed a part of Sanga's territories.[31] However, Maharana was quick to resond and the force sent by Babur to Bayana was defeated at the Battle of Bayana.[32] Gwalior and other places were also wrested back.[33]

In one of the earliest western scholarly account[34] of the Mughal rulers, 'A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur Baber and Humayun', William Erskine, a 19th-century Scottish historian, quotes:[35]

They (Mughals) had some sharp encounters with the Rajputs, ... found that they had now to contend with a foe more formidable than the Afghans or any of the natives of India to whom they had yet been opposed. The Rajputs, ... were ready to meet, face to face,... all times prepared to lay down their lives for their honour.

— William Erskine, "Rana Sanga", 'A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur Baber and Humayun' p. 464

Rana Sanga had destroyed all the Mughal contingents that were sent against him, this caused great fear in Babur's army as he has written "the fierceness and valour of the pagan army" made the troops "anxious and afraid". The Afghans in Baburs army started to leave and the Turks started complaining about defending a land that they hated, they requested Babur to leave to Kabul with the rich spoils that they had collected. Babur writes "no manly word or brave council was heard from any one soever".[7] The greater numbers and reported courage of the Rajputs served to instil fear in Babur's army. An astrologer added to the general unease by his foolish predictions. To raise the flagging morale of his soldiers, Babur gave a religious colour to the battle against Hindus. Babur proceeded to renounce future consumption of wine, broke his drinking cups, poured out all the stores of liquor on the ground and promulgated a pledge of total abstinence.[36] In his autobiography, Babur writes that:[37][38]

It was a really good plan, and it had a favourable propagandistic effect on friend and foe.

Strategy

Maharana after capturing Bayana moved to north-east and took Bhusawar thus cutting Babur's supply line from Delhi and Kabul.[39] His strategy was simple as by capturing Bayana and then Bhusawar he had cut off Babur's supplies while making his own preparations which forced Babur to discuss peace-overtures in which he proposed to set Bayana the boundary between themselves. However, acting upon the advise of his chiefs he rejected it. Thus, Sangram on battle day placed his trusted chiefs on centre and others on respective right and left. He thought of throwing the bulk of his army to enemy lines fighting head to head in which Rajput cavalry was unmatched.[40]

On the other side, Babur knew that his army would have been swept by the Rajput charge if he tried to fight them in the open, he therefore planned a defensive strategy to form a fortified encampment where he would use his muskets and artillery to weaken his foes and then strike when their morale had shattered.[41] Babur had carefully inspected the site. Like in Panipat, he strengthened his front by procuring carts that were fastened by iron chains (not leather straps, as at Panipat) and reinforced by mantlets. Gaps between the carts were used for horsemen to charge at the opponent at an opportune time. To lengthen the line, ropes made of rawhide were placed over wheeled wooden tripods. The flanks were given protection by digging ditches.[42] Foot-musketeers, falconets and mortars were placed behind the carts, from where they could fire and, if required, advance. The heavy Turkic horsemen stood behind them, two contingents of elite horsemen were kept in the reserve for the taulqama (flanking) tactic. Thus, a strong offensive-defensive formation had been prepared by Babur.[41]

Battle

Rana Sanga, fighting in a traditional manner, charged the Mughal ranks. His army was shot down in great numbers by the Mughal muskets, the noise of the muskets further caused fear amongst the horses and elephants of the Rajput army, causing them to trample their own men.[41] Rana Sanga finding it impossible to attack the Mughal centre, ordered his men to attack the Mughal flanks, the fighting continued on the two flanks for three hours, during which the Mughals fired at the Rajput ranks with muskets and arrows while the Rajputs could only retaliate in close quarters.[41] Babur writes:

Band after band of the Pagan troops followed each other to help their men, so we in our turn sent detachment after detachment to reinforce our fighters on that side.

Babur did make attempts to use his famous taulqama or pincer movement, however his men were unable to complete it, twice they pushed the Rajputs back however due to the relentless attacks of the Rajput horsemen they were forced to retreat to their positions.[41] At about this time Silhadi of Raisen deserted the Ranas army and went over to Baburs.[41] The betrayal of Silhadi forced the Rana to change his plans and issue new orders. According to some historians this betrayal never happened and was a later concoction.[43] During this time the Rana was shot by a bullet and fell unconscious, causing great confusion in the Rajput army and a lull in the fighting for a short period. Babur has written this event in his memoirs by saying "the accursed infidels remained confounded for one hour".[41] A Jhala chieftain called Ajja acted as the Rana and led the Rajput army, while the Rana was hidden within a circle of his trusted men. The Rajputs continued their attacks but failed to break the Mughal flanks [42] and their centre was unable to do anything against the fortified Mughal centre, Jadunath Sarkar has explained the struggle in the following words:

In the centre the Rajputs continued to fall without being able to retaliate in the least or advance to close grips. They were hopelessly outclassed in weapon and their dense masses only increased their hopeless slaughter, as every bullet found its billet.

Babur after noticing the weak Rajput centre ordered his men to take the offensive, the Mughal attack pushed the Rajputs back and forced the Rajput commanders to rush to the front, resulting in the death of many.[41] The Rajputs became leaderless as most of their senior commanders were dead and their unconscious king had been moved out of the battle. The Rajputs made a desperate charge on the Mughal left and right flanks like before, "here their bravest were mown down and the battle ended in their irretrievable defeat",[41] dead bodies could be found as far as Bayana, Alwar and Mewat of both sides. The Mughals were too exhausted and had very heavy casualties after the long fight to give chase and Babur himself gave up the idea of invading Mewar.[41]

Following this, Babur ordered a tower of enemy skulls to be erected, a practice formulated by Timur. According to Chandra, the objective of constructing a tower of skulls was not just to record a great victory, but also to terrorize opponents. Earlier, the same tactic had been used by Babur against the Afghans of Bajaur.[44][page needed]

Aftermath

Sanga was taken away from the battlefield in an unconscious state by Prithviraj Kachwaha and Maldev Rathore of Marwar. After regaining consciousness he took an oath to not return to Chittor until he had defeated Babur and ousted him. He also stopped wearing a turban and instead chose to wrap a cloth over his head. While he was preparing to wage another war against Babur, he was poisoned by his own nobles who did not wanted another conflict with Babur. Though many historians support the poisoning theory it is often said that Mughals had a habit of poisoning their enemies whom they thought were powerful and Sanga was himself praised by Babur quoting him as the strongest king in India along with Krishnadevaraya of Vijaynagar empire. He died in Kalpi on January 1528.[45]

It is suggested that had it not been for the cannon and luck of Babur, Rana Sanga might have achieved a historic victory against Babur.[46] Pradeep Barua notes that Babur's cannon put an end to outdated trends in Indian warfare.[47] After the battle, Babur made a pyramid using the heads of his enemies.[48]

However it would be wrong to suppose that the Rajput power was crushed for ever, The power vacuum left by Rana Sanga was filled by Rao Maldeo Rathore. He took over the role as the leading Rajput king and dominated the time period after Sanga's death[49]

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ Majumdar, R. C (1974). History and Culture of the Indian People, Volume 07, The Mughul Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 37.
  2. ^ Somani, R.V (1976). History of Mewar: from earliest times to 1751 A.D. C.L Ranka Jaipur. p. 173. We do not exactly know the strength of Babar's army also, According to Afshana-e-Shakan, he was having 80,000 cavalry under him.
  3. ^ Military History of India by Jadunath Sarkar p. 58 – "Cavalry was formed in divisions, 5,000 under Humayun, 3,000 under Mahdi Khwaja, 10,000 under Babur and 2,000 elite horsemen in reserve for Taulqama"
  4. ^ Military History of India by Jadunath Sarkar p. 56
  5. ^ Military History of India by Jadunath Sarkar p. 59 – "The Indian allies of Babur were posted in his left wing"
  6. ^ a b Har Bilas Sarda (1918). Maharana Sanga, the hindupat; the last great leader of Rajput Race. Scottish Mission Industries. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-521-25119-8. The Maharana's army consisted of his own and that of the great chieftains who acknowledged his allegiance. Raja Silhidi, the Rajput Chief of Bhilsa and Raisen, commanded 35,000 horses; Rawal Udai Singh of Dungarpur and Hasan Khan Mewati, 12,000 each; Raja Medni Rai of Chanderi, 10,000 horse; Narbad Hada of Boondi, 7,000; Khinchi Shatrudeva of Gagrone, 6,000; Bhar Mai of Idar, Rao Viramdeva of Merta and Chauhan Narsinghdeva, 4,000 each. Sultan Mahmud Lodi, a son of Sikandar Lodi, commanded 1 0,000 adventurers; various other chiefs had from 4,000 to 7,000 men. Rai Mai Rathor, Commander-in-chief of Jodhpur, and Kanwar Kalyan Mai, heir of Bikaner, commanded 3,000 each.
  7. ^ a b c Eraly, Abrahim (2007). Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Moghuls. Penguin UK. ISBN 9789351180937. The battle of Khanua was a virtual replay of the battle of Panipat, except that it lasted nearly double the time and was far more fiercely contested, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides
  8. ^ Giles Tillotson (1991). Mughal India. Penguin Books. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-14-011854-4. He was immediately challenged by assembled Rajput forces under Rana Sanga of Chittor who was reckoned by Babur as one of the two greatest Hindu rulers.
  9. ^ V.S Bhatnagar (1974). Life and Times of Sawai Jai Singh, 1688–1743. Impex India. p. 6. From 1326, Mewar's grand recovery commenced under Lakha, and later under Kumbha and most notably under Sanga, till it became one of the greatest powers in northern India during the first quarter of sixteenth century
  10. ^ An Advanced History of India. By R.C. Majumdar ... H.C. Raychaudhuri ... Kalikinkar Datta. (Second Edition.). Macmillan & Company. 1950. p. 419. The battle of khanua was one of the most decisive battles in Indian history certainly more than that of Panipat as Lodhi empire was already crumbling and Mewar had emerged as major power in northern India. Thus, Its at Khanua the fate of India was sealed for next two centuries
  11. ^ Radheyshyam Chaurasia (2002). History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 161. ISBN 978-81-269-0123-4. The battle of Kanwaha was more important in its result even than the first battle of Panipat. While the former made Babur ruler of Delhi alone the later made him King of Hindustan. As a result of his success the Mughal empire was established firmly in India. The sovereignty of India now passed from Rajputs to Mughals
  12. ^ Wink 2012, p. 27: "The victory of Mughals at khanua can be seen as a landmark event in Mughal conquest of North India as the battle turned out to be more historic and eventful than one fought near Panipat. It made Babur undisputed master of North India while smashing Rajput powers. After the victory at khanua, the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul and continue to remain till downfall of the Empire after Aalamgir's death."
  13. ^ R.S Sharma (1999). Mughal Empire in India: A Systematic Study Including Source Material. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 46. ISBN 978-81-7156-818-5. Results: The victory of Babur, was nevertheless final and complete. 'Hardly a clan of the Rajputs was there but had lost the flower of its princely blood'. The consequences of the battle of Khanwa were most momentous. (i) The menace of the Rajput supremacy, which had loomed large before the eyes of the Muhammadans in India for the last ten years, was removed once for all
  14. ^ Eraly 2007, pp. 27–29.
  15. ^ a b A Comprehensive History of India: Comprehensive history of medieval India p. 107.
  16. ^ Chandra 2006, p. 203.
  17. ^ Mohammad Habib, Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (1970). A COMPREHENSIVE HISTORY OF INDIA VOL.5. PEOPLE’S PUBLISHING HOUSE,NEW DELHI. p. 707. Disgusted with Ibrahim, the nobles of Punjab wrote letters to Babur in Kabul and invited him to invade India. Alam Khan, the brother of Sikandar Lodi personally went to Kabul for this purpose....when Alam Khan reached Lahore, he insisted that since the Mughals had come at his invitation, they should assign Delhi to him after conquering it. Alam Khan and the Mughals disagreed and Alam Khan marched with an army army of forty thousand mounted men to Delhi.
  18. ^ Chandra 2006, p. 204.
  19. ^ Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002). History of medieval India : from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. New Delhi: Atlantic Publ. pp. 89–90. ISBN 81-269-0123-3.
  20. ^ Hooja, Rima (2006). A History of Rajasthan. Rupa and company. p. 453. ISBN 9788129115010. In contrast, the traditional Rajput version holds that it was not Sanga, already powerful enough and mainly successful against various enemy states, who had sent an envoy to Babur....but rather, it was Babur who sought an ally of undoubted ability and strength against their common foe, Ibrahim Lodi.
  21. ^ Chandra 2006, pp. 32–33.
  22. ^ Military History of India by Jadunath Sarkar p. 49 – "established himself on Kabul, and from this base he began a series of raids into Punjab which was then governed by Daulat Khan on behalf of the Lodi Sultan of Delhi, Daulat was faithless to his master and courted Babur in the hope of making himself independent, but in the end his ally crushed him and seized the Punjab for himself."
  23. ^ "Whose history is it anyway: 'Padmaavat' taints Khilji". Business Standard India. Press Trust of India. 25 January 2018. Retrieved 19 March 2022. History cannot be rewritten in any way, which is what they are doing, Chaturvedi said. He recalled how historian & Indologist Gopinath Sharma, known for his scholarly research on Mewar kings and Mughal emperors, was abused and manhandled at a seminar in Jodhpur for writing that the Battle of Haldighati was indecisive, though Akbar had an upper hand
  24. ^ Sharma 1954, pp. 21–22.
  25. ^ Somani, R.V (1976). History of Mewar: from earliest times to 1751 A.D. C.L Ranka Jaipur. p. 173. We do not exactly know the strength of Babar's army also, According to Afshana-e-Shakan, he was having 80,000 cavalry under him.
  26. ^ Sharma 1954, p. 26: "Sanga ordered the drums of war to be beaten and letters of call to duty to be despatched which were duly responded."
  27. ^ Majumdar, R.C (1950). An Advanced History of India. Macmillan & Company. p. 421. Rana Sanga, the hero of Rajput national revival, was certaudy a more formidable adversary than Ibrahim. He marched with an army, composed of 120 chiefs
  28. ^ Somani, R.V (1976). History of Mewar: from earliest times to 1751 A.D. (in 173). C.L Ranka Japur. Maharana's army was having several important chiefs and rulers, Babar mentions the names of Silahady Tomar, Udaisingh of Vagada, Medani Ray, Hasan Khan Mewati, Bharmal of Idar, Narpat Hada, some Satrvi chief of Kacha, Biramdeva Meditiya, Birsingh Bundela, Rao Ganga (of Jodhpur), Karamsingh, Chandrahan Chauhan etc. However, this list seems to be incomplete, It does not mention the names of the Sultan of Nagaur, the rulers of Amber, Bikaner ९७०५ whose forces evidently participated in the battle{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  29. ^ Chandra, Satish (2005). Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals Part - II. Har-Anand Publications. p. 34. ISBN 978-81-241-1066-9.
  30. ^ Sharma 1954, p. 26: "The Rana had looked upon himself as the champion of Hindu interest and the protector of Hindu religion and culture. He dearly saw that the slightest inaction or indifference on his part would be tantamount to betraying Hindu interests of which he was the custodian. Babur had, on the other hand, championed the cause of Islam which had for more than three hundred years dominated the country. He looked upon it his duty to maintain that supremacy. The policy was also calculated to win him with the support of Indian Muslims whose religious interests were identical with that of Babur."
  31. ^ Sarda, Har Bilas (1918). Maharana Sanga, the hindupat. Scottish Mission Industries. p. 1. Eighty thousand horse, 7 Rajas of the highest rank, 9 Raos and 104 chieftains bearing the titles of Rawal and Rawat, with 500 war elephants, followed him into the field. The princes of Marwar and Amber (Jodhpur and Jaipur) did him homage, and the Raos of Gwalior, Ajmer, Sikri, Raisen, Kalpi, Chanderi, Boondi, Gagroon, Rampura and Abu served him as tributaries or held of him in chief."1
  32. ^ Somani, R.V (1976). History of Mewar: from earliest times to 1751 A.D. C.L Ranka Jaipur. p. 171. 'The Mewar army which laid a siege to Bayana put the' army of: Babar in state of blocade, The reinforcement sent by Babar was badly defeated. The soldiers of Bayana garrison evacuated the place and Sanga captured the same.
  33. ^ Somani, R.V (1976). History of Mewar: from earliest times to 1751 A.D. C.L Ranka Jaipur. p. 173. 'After the battle of Bayana, Sanga had passed a month in making necessary preparations and consolidating his position near Bhusawar. The detachments sent by him against Gwalior, Tijara 'etc, were succeeded in wresting these places
  34. ^ Erskine, William (2012). A History of India Under the Two First Sovereigns of the House of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-04620-6.
  35. ^ "A history of India under the two first sovereigns of the house of Taimur, Báber and Humáyun". Indian Culture. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  36. ^ Chandra 2006, p. 34.
  37. ^ Damrosch, David; Alliston, April (2004). The Longman Anthology of World Literature. Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-16980-8.
  38. ^ Shahane, Girish (9 November 2019). "Babur in India: An emperor who loved the monsoon breeze but wasn't impressed by the melons or grapes". Scroll.in. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
  39. ^ Sharma 1954, pp. 31–32: "From Bayana, instead of going North-east reaching the enemy direedy, he marched towards North¬ west and halted at Bhusawar. He did so probably.with a view to cut the enemy's line of supply from Delhi and Kabul."
  40. ^ Somani, R.V (1976). History of Mewar: from earliest times to 1751 A.D. C.L Ranka Jaipur. pp. 171–175.
  41. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Military History of India by Jadunath Sarkar pp. 56–61
  42. ^ a b Military History of India by Jadunath Sarkar p. 57
  43. ^ Majumdar, R.C.; Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan; Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti (1951). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Delhi sultanate. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 346. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  44. ^ Chandra 2006.
  45. ^ Sharma 1954, pp. 38, 44.
  46. ^ Barua, Pradeep (2005). The State at War in South Asia. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1344-9.
  47. ^ Barua, Pradeep (2005). The State at War in South Asia. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-80321-344-9.
  48. ^ Black, Jeremy (8 May 2013). War and the Cultural Turn. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7456-5638-0.
  49. ^ Kothiyal, Tanuja (2016). Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85 "Maldeo attempted to fill the power vacuum created by the death of Rana Sanga. The death of Rana Sanga and the misfortunes of the house of Mewar left Malde to the uncontrolled exercise of his power". ISBN 9781107080317.

Bibliography

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