What are the best indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem services in agroforestry landscapes?

Different agroforestry systems will increase biodiversity to different extents, but in general an agroforestry system will be more biodiverse than a forest plantation or a corn field. Multi-strata agroforestry in the tropics is going to be most biodiverse, whereas windbreaks in northern Canada will be much less biodiverse. However, the latter will create habitat and shelter for a great variety of insect and bird species that might not otherwise inhabit that landscape – and hence it increases biodiversity. Indicators are understood to be: canopy roughness, woody plant species quantity, number of insect species present, and number of bird/amphibian/reptile species present. The higher the diversity of high trophic level species, the better.

Biodiversity indicators in Agroforestry system are- a) Birds, butterflies, honeycombs, squirrels/or small mammals (hare) etc. b) soil biota- earthworms, beetles, ants, milipedes etc. Ecosystem service indicators are- a) water pond/ stream recharge, b) Tree canopy growth for carbon sequestration, c) microclimate cooling- thermometer reading, d) Soil carbon & quality improvement- leaf litter, biota described above

The best indicators of biodiversity in agroforestry landscapes include species richness, which measures the variety of plant, animal, and microbial species present, and habitat diversity, reflecting the range of different environments that support various species. For ecosystem services, indicators such as soil health, which encompasses organic matter content and nutrient cycling, and carbon sequestration rates, which track the landscape's ability to absorb and store carbon, are crucial. These indicators collectively provide a comprehensive understanding of both the ecological and functional health of agroforestry systems.

the best indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem services in agroforestry landscapes are- 1) plant diversity, including rare/ threatened species, b) birds likewise, c) mammals, d) butterflies (these are easy to identify, field guides, experts exist, they feed on host plants & inform reg. habitat quality), e) water supply/ stream/ river/ groundwater level, f) soil carbon content, g) tree biomass value per ha (as proxy of carbon capture- 50% of tree biomass is carbon).

To measure biodiversity, you can use: - metasequencing (for instance of soil samples) - audiorecordings (to assess bird biodiversity) - counting (the old fashioned way) Typically high biodiversity in one part of the system (for example soil, or birds) correlates highly with high biodiversity in other parts

The first touch point with Biodiversity is already achieved when designing agroforestry systems for the specific place & context. In Syntropic Agroforestry we basically DESIGN for biodiversity in time & space to insure the utmost resilience & productivity of the systems. We choose species to allow for successional development & combine short-, medium- and long lifecycle plants. We mix crop species with support species (usually forest species) for pruning & mulch production. We design in forest layers or strata. Thereby we create habitat in time & space. Our design gives us indicators for planted species richness, varieties used & seeds integrated (genetic diversity). Using a functional framework we get indicators for ecosystem integrity.

Key indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem services in agroforestry landscapes include species diversity, habitat quality, ecosystem functioning, carbon sequestration, and socioeconomic indicators. These should be context-specific and adaptable to local conditions to effectively measure the impacts of agroforestry systems.

Ecosystem Service Indicators in Agroforestry Agroforestry enhances ecosystem services, including: - Provisioning services (products directly used or consumed): - Measured by: yield, quality, value - Regulating services (processes regulating ecosystem conditions): - Measured by: biophysical or economic methods - Cultural services (non-material benefits): - Measured by: participatory or valuation techniques Assessing these indicators helps evaluate the impact of agroforestry practices on ecosystem services to optimize benefits for both people and the environment. Provisioning services: food, water, fuel, fiber.

The best indicators of ecosystem services in agroforestry landscapes include biodiversity, soil health, water regulation, carbon sequestration, and productivity. Biodiversity, such as the variety of plants, insects, and animals, reflects ecosystem resilience and function. Soil health indicators, like organic matter content and nutrient cycling, assess fertility and sustainability. Water regulation can be measured by water retention and quality. Carbon sequestration is a key indicator of climate change mitigation. Lastly, productivity, including crop yield and timber production, reflects the balance between ecological health and agricultural output. These indicators together provide a holistic view of agroforestry's benefits.

In our living lab we used the TEEB framework to showcase exactly the suggested indicators. What we additionally did - to be able to put the gained insight into perspective - is doing the assessments not only for the agroforestry system but for surrounding land use systems (agricultural and cultural) and natural landscape elements. This way we had a local comparison of ecosystem services and saw the outstanding value syntropic agroforestry provided... even outcompeting natural ecosystems.

The evaluation of these Ecosystem Service Indicators takes tailored evaluations for each: To evaluate provisioning services, metrics like yield, quality, and economic value are commonly used. Regulating services, such as maintaining water quality or controlling erosion, are assessed using biophysical and economic methodologies. Cultural services are evaluated through participatory approaches and valuation techniques. Recognizing the diverse nature of ecosystem services is crucial, as it requires tailoring evaluation methods to each category—provisioning, regulating, and cultural. Each category demands specific metrics and techniques for accurate assessment.

Ecosystem service indicators in agroforestry landscapes include carbon sequestration levels, reflecting climate regulation, and soil health metrics like organic matter and nutrient content, indicating fertility and productivity. Water quality and retention assess hydrological services, while pollinator diversity highlights crop pollination efficiency. Biodiversity indices, such as species richness and habitat connectivity, support pest control and resilience. These indicators collectively measure the benefits provided by ecosystems, ensuring sustainable agricultural practices and the overall health of agroforestry systems.

Some indicators of the ecosystemic services from agroforestry systems are: -Water retention level in soil -Organic matter content in soil -Temperature differential in soil and air -Polination presence and honey production yield -Animal production, food and wood yield -Workforce needs and offer -Salaries differentials -Rural teenagers exodus to town -Faith, peace and happiness -Heart and other kind of diseases

To measure ecosystem services at a landscape scale, we can utilize: - Satellite data: This includes visible satellite imagery, infrared imagery, and spectroscopic data, such as the Vegetation Health Index (VHI) and Vegetation Drought Response Index (VegDRI), to monitor vegetation health, drought response, and other ecological indicators. - In situ measurements: These involve direct field observations like piezometric underwater monitoring, temperature readings, transpiration rates, and biomass production indices. These measurements are crucial as landscape-scale ecosystem services significantly influence global wind patterns and rainfall distribution, highlighting their importance in climate regulation.

Indeed, impact assessment methods are vital yet should be looked at in a systemic impact causality framework. Complex systems do not work in linear cause-effect chains and need to be looked at holistically and over time. It is important what your input is and what outputs your interventions generate. Those again create outcomes and influence social, economic and environmental impact.

Impact assessments should be conducted with the highest level of thoroughness achievable. Often, individuals (even those in close proximity to a resource) are unaware of changing habitats or environmental conditions. For instance, when evaluating biodiversity changes on a property with significant inputs, merely examining one taxon would be inadequate for drawing conclusions about the overall impact. Certainly, some changes or inputs affect various components of a habitat differently.

Impact assessment methods for agroforestry landscapes include Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) to evaluate potential ecological changes and socio-economic assessments to understand community effects. Biodiversity monitoring tracks species and habitat health, while carbon footprint analysis measures greenhouse gas emissions and sequestration. Soil and water quality testing assess ecosystem health. Remote sensing and GIS tools provide spatial analysis of land-use changes. Participatory approaches involving local stakeholders ensure comprehensive impact understanding, integrating scientific and community perspectives for sustainable management.

Impact assessments for ecosystem services and biodiversity in agroforestry landscapes evaluate how land-use changes affect ecological functions and species diversity. Key methods include Remote Sensing for large-scale monitoring, capturing changes in land cover and habitat structure. Field Surveys are vital for detailed data on species richness, abundance, and soil health. Modeling Techniques predict impacts on ecosystem services like carbon sequestration and water regulation. Participatory Approaches involve local communities to understand cultural services and traditional knowledge. Together, these methods provide a comprehensive understanding of how agroforestry practices influence ecological and biodiversity outcomes

Impact evaluation methods can be made by a company or by yourself. We must see all dimensions in the agroforestry system and the farm as one: soil, plants, animals and people. Some examples: 1.Soil: Trial pits and blast-holes excavated in the land, colour, texture, deepness, presence of life and worms, deepness roots and water infiltration timing, leafs decomposing 2.Plants: 1x1m square reading % presence of plants, areal plane or drone photography differentials, leaf health as incidence of plagues or diseases attack to crops and fruits. 3.Animals: Presence of birds (hawks), insects (mantis) and wild animals (foxes), health of animal production 4.Human: Less visits to doctors, sensation of health and others

Ecosystem Services (ES) impact assessment must begin with a rigorous theoretical framework. Given that ES function not only as complex systems but also as highly elastic ones, impacts or disturbances may only become evident after several decades. For instance, well water today may originate from rainfall a century ago. Therefore, theoretical frameworks require an in-depth analysis to identify the myriad potential impacts, and then prioritize these impacts based on their associated risks and probabilities. This approach ensures a comprehensive understanding of long-term consequences and supports effective decision-making.

Biodiversity and ecosystem services impact assessment is crucial to understand the effects of human activities and guide environmental management policies. Several methods can be used to rigorously assess these impacts. The biodiversity footprint measures the pressures on ecosystems, while habitat loss assessment analyses the destruction of natural habitats. Species diversity indicators provide information on the resilience of ecosystems. For ecosystem services, biophysical assessment quantifies ecological functions, socio-cultural assessment considers social values, and monetary assessment measures the economic value of ecosystem services.

The best indicators for biodiversity and ecosystem services in agroforestry landscape could be those that are derived from livestock, trees, crops, etc. holding their progressive impact on social, economical and ecological balance in the quality of nature in every aspect.